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Mit Theatre Europe veröffentlichte das britische Spieleunternehmen Personal Software Service (PSS) 1985 ein Strategiespiel, das innerhalb Europas für Furore sorgte. Die rundenbasierte Konfliktsimulation, in der die SpielerInnen entweder die Rolle der NATO oder die des Warschauer Pakts übernehmen, konfrontierte diese mit dem virtuellen Szenario eines „heißen“ Krieges in Mitteleuropa. Ziel des Spiels war es, die Bundesrepublik 30 Tage lang zu verteidigen (NATO) oder sie in derselben Zeit einzunehmen (Warschauer Pakt). Das Ausspielen des Konflikts im Rahmen des Mediums Spiel war keine gänzlich neue Erfindung: Auch das Computerspiel Reforger ’88: NATO Defense of the Fulda Gap von 1984 oder das Brettspiel Fulda Gap hatten dasselbe Thema zum Inhalt. Beide Titel wurden aber zunächst nur in den USA veröffentlicht. Folgerichtig war Theatre Europe eines der ersten Spiele, das eine öffentliche Debatte zu diesem Thema in Westeuropa auslöste. Im Jahr 1986 startete der Verkauf des Spiels in Frankreich, und auch den deutschen SpielerInnen sollte das Produkt nicht vorenthalten werden. In der Bundesrepublik wurde das Spiel jedoch noch vor Erscheinen von der Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Schriften indiziert, sodass es keinen breiten Vertrieb fand. Erst im Jahr 2011 wurde Theatre Europe wieder vom Index genommen.
This article explores the connection between genocide, language and language consciousness by tracing the strange biography of one Yiddish neologism: shabreven. During the Holocaust, the word came to mean both ›looting‹ and ›taking ownerless property‹. It stoked moral and etymological debate among Yiddish speakers in the Warsaw ghetto, while also occupying a prominent position in postwar Polish and Zionist discourses. The term shifted between different semantic, ethical and cultural fields, navigating a delicate balance between various meanings and norms. The discussions around this term help to shed light on key questions: What were the motivations for the study of Holocaust Yiddish neologisms? How did this early postwar Yiddish philological discourse differ from its parallel in German? Shabreven became both a symbol of the genocidal collapse of language and a tool for regaining victim agency in speech.
It would be easy to presume that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights had always been a symbol of opposition and dissent in the German Democratic Republic. Passed by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, the UDHR contained a number of provisions that contradicted the political and social order of the GDR as run by the Socialist Unity Party (SED). It demanded an independent judiciary, prohibited arbitrary arrest and invasion of privacy, and guaranteed the right to leave one’s own country. In East Germany, where the judiciary was firmly an ideological organ, the Stasi regularly conducted mass surveillance and arbitrary detention and those seeking to leave the country illegally were shot at the border, this would seem to be a document seen to be inherently hostile to SED rule. Even the social rights contained in the UDHR, in particular the right to strike, were contrary to the legal realities of East Germany where citizens could not demand rights from the state that would obstruct the will of the party.
Yet over the course of East Germany’s existence, the Universal Declaration was more likely to be invoked by the SED than by its domestic opponents. The SED came to view the Universal Declaration and the UN human rights system as a whole as an ally to the Socialist Bloc and the contents of the UDHR reflected in the achievements of socialism within the borders of the GDR. For decades this was not challenged by East Germans on a mass scale, until very suddenly in the late 1980s, human rights and the UDHR became symbols of the democratic opposition. This article will trace the trajectory of the UDHR in East German public discourse from its passage in 1948 and the reaction by the SED in the Soviet Occupied Zone, through the commemorations of the UDHR on its many anniversaries before the ultimate collapse of SED in 1989.
Heavy Metal ist Extase, ist Rausch, ist performative Härte. Mit Politik haben die meisten Heavy-Metal-Fans und -Bands zumindest als Teil ihrer subkulturellen Identität nichts am Hut. Eine frappante Ausnahme stellt der National Socialist Black Metal (NSBM) dar, ein nicht klar abgrenzbarer, international agierender und offen rechtsextremer Teil der Szene. Hier ist die Szenezugehörigkeit inhärent mit Politik und explizit geschichtsphilosophischen Diskussionen verwoben. In einer Vielzahl an Fanzine-Texten schreiben die Anhänger (größtenteils sind es Männer) nicht nur über Musik, sondern tragen über die Reproduktion rechter Narrative zur Ideologisierung und Stabilisierung der NSBM-Szene bei. Der Untersuchungsgegenstand NSBM ermöglicht einen Blick darauf, wie rechte Geschichtspolitiken in popkulturellen Kontexten Eingang finden, dort tradiert und verbreitet werden. Denn aus dem NSBM bestehen zahlreiche Verbindungen in rechtsterroristische Milieus und die Szene kann auch sonst als Teil der „Neuen Rechten“ verstanden werden.
Historians have analyzed films, novels, records, theater plays etc. primarily in reference to their meaning and reception. This article makes a case for moving the focus to the actors, structures and processes that shape symbolic objects before these are consumed. To this end, we present a framework established in US sociology to study the fabrication, distribution and evaluation of symbolic content. We discuss the production of culture perspective as an approach that appears to be particularly useful for historical research and, by reviewing selected works from the sociological literature, demonstrate how this perspective can be applied to phenomena like popular music and literary fiction. We focus on genres as bundles of conventions as one lens through which historians may analyze the creation, reproduction, evaluation and consumption of culture.
My Road to Berlin, or Mein Weg nach Berlin, presents a Willy Brandt that confounds a present-day reader’s expectations. While the 1960 autobiography of the then-mayor of West Berlin links his career with the familiar story of democracy’s development in Germany, this work nevertheless retains an unexpected edge. In one surprising scene, the mayor denounces his East Berlin SED counterparts as a ›Communist foreign legion‹ whom ›the citizens of my city had decisively defeated‹ during the Second Berlin Crisis of 1958 (p. 17). In the book, Brandt comes off as a Cold Warrior of steely determination rather than a Brückenbauer bridging ideological divides. Far from being out of character, however, My Road to Berlin captures Brandt at a pivotal moment in his career, when he sought to offer himself to both West German voters and a global public as a viable alternative to Konrad Adenauer.
How have Jewish intellectuals reflected on the German language both in relation to and in the aftermath of the ›catastrophe‹? This essay explores one perspective, that of H.G. Adler (Prague, 1910 – London, 1988), a scholar, author, and survivor of the Shoah. Adler’s relationship to and reflections on the German language offer insights into the experience of persecution and survival as well as into the memory and representation of the Holocaust. His vast body of work testifies to both the possibility and the necessity of writing ›after Auschwitz‹, and indeed to the necessity of writing in German after the Holocaust. A survivor of Theresienstadt, Auschwitz, and two satellite camps of Buchenwald (Niederorschel and Langenstein-Zwieberge), Adler went on to write in various forms, from the analytic to the poetic, about National Socialism, antisemitism, and life and death in the concentration and extermination camp system. His scholarly work made an important contribution to establishing the international and interdisciplinary field of Holocaust Studies, and his poetry and novels bear witness to his own personal experiences in the camps, albeit not in a directly autobiographical form.
The Language of Eichmann in Jerusalem. Nazi German and Other Forms of German in the 1961 Trial
(2024)
The Eichmann trial granted the German language a degree of audibility unprecedented in the short history of the State of Israel, with the defendant, the judges, prosecutors, and witnesses frequently resorting to speaking in German. Drawing on archival materials, protocols, footage, and press reports, this article shows how the Eichmann trial brought to the surface several historical tensions around the postwar status of the German language. The various forms of German heard in the courtroom challenged notions of German as a Nazi language and contributed to a gradual mitigation of its status as a tainted language. The article concludes by reassessing Hannah Arendt’s 1963 Eichmann in Jerusalem and specifically her postulate that Eichmann’s language faithfully reflected his mindset. It is argued that Arendt’s understanding of Eichmann’s language echoed prewar ideas on German’s distinctive power.
Among Soviet historians it has become a kind of truism that the Soviet Union was in a permanent state of contradictions and that Soviet society adopted to these contradictions with a variety of survival mechanisms that ranged from ignoring contradictions to circumventing their challenges. One of the most significant contradictions was the tension between the Soviet Union’s self-declared anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism and the fact that it asserted its own imperial and colonial structures, especially in the post-WW II period. Many more qualified people have written on this and debated which of the two elements should be considered primary or how one should characterize the resulting entity. I shall try to address a different question here: What does and did empire mean to Russians, especially vis-à-vis Ukraine?
The Holocaust and Genocide
(2004)
How does the Holocaust relate to genocide as a concept and an event? This question has caused considerable controversy because scholarly discourse and identity politics cannot be separated neatly. While the term 'genocide' was coined during the Second World War and enshrined in International law in 1948, the Holocaust as a specifically Jewish tragedy did not become an object of consciousness until almost two decades later. Ever since, those highlighting a distinctive experience for European Jewry have sought to separate it from that of other victims of the Nazis as well as other cases of ethnic and racial extermination.
How will Russia’s war of aggression in Ukraine end? What kinds of political scenarios could stop the suffering and bring stability to the region? Of all the different future scenarios none is particularly encouraging. In particular, the prospect of a ›Finlandized‹ Ukraine has met with near universal rejection. Yet, ever since Russia’s illegal annexation of the Crimea, ›Finlandization‹ of Ukraine has been discussed as a potential solution.
The fiftieth issue
(2021)
At first glance, the seventeenth year of this journal’s publication would not appear to mark any particular anniversary. And yet the present edition is quite special for the editors and the editorial team: it is the 50th issue overall. (There was a double issue in 2007, otherwise there have always been three issues each year.) This milestone is the occasion for a brief review of the original objectives and of developments thus far, as well as a (self-)critical look at what the future may bring. Scholars in the nascent field of the cultural study of periodicals have rightly observed: ›The production of periodicals is often accompanied by reflections on the value, conditions, and promise of producing periodicals.‹
At the beginning of the twenty-first century the problem of European frontiers ceased to exist. This is because they are no longer determined by a sense of European identity, but rather by a consensus reached in Brussels. The European borderlands disappeared generations ago and were substituted by peripheries of the capitalist world-economy. It may be said that both concepts are of only academic interest. However, I am not convinced.
The first thesis the paper argues is that a certain collective identity emerged at the shop floor („we“, the workers as opposed to „them“, party leaders, intelligentsia, peasants, the self-employed) that was built - and declared - increasingly in opposition to the official ideology and the communist party.5 Important factors in this process were the growing economic difficulties, the party’s apparent inability to solve them and the increasing materialism people experienced in the everyday life - including party member- and leadership. From the mid-70s onwards, the workers could perceive the worsening economic situation of the country by the decrease of the real wages and the need to do overwork or take extra jobs (first in the agriculture and then in the so-called vgmk-s) to keep the former standards of living. The continuously increasing prices made the impact of the „global market“ real regardless of the stance of the Central Committee. The sharpening criticism of the system is formulated, however, not from the viewpoint of the individual but that of the worker, which suggests the existence of a collective identity. One may call it a paradox of the Communist ideology that the system, after all, was successful to develop working-class collective identities but these were built in opposition to the Communist regime and not for it. The paper will attempt to show how these „oppositionist“ identities were formulated and in what ways they are indicative of the alienation of the workers from the workers’ state.
Milton Friedman hung up the phone in disgruntlement. The most influential economist of the postwar era had just called three different banks, one in Chicago and then two in New York, in order to initiate a financial transaction. He wanted to sell short $300,000 in pound sterling. Short selling is a technique for speculating on falling prices. Initially, speculators can only speculate on rising prices: they buy something and hope that it gains value, so that they can sell it at a profit. If the price for this asset goes down instead, the speculator incurs a loss when he resells it. So in order to profit from falling prices, speculators need to sell first and buy later – which is indeed possible if what is sold now is in fact only to be delivered a few weeks later. If the speculator is right and prices fall in the interim, he can buy cheap just before delivery is due and thus profit from having already sold what, at the time, he had not yet owned.
Picture agencies are mediators between photographers and editorial staffs; they play a crucial role in producing mass media visibility. However, their part in the system of the visual propaganda of the Nazi state is largely unexplored. This article features a controversial case, the American Associated Press and its German subsidiary. By submitting to the Schriftleitergesetz (Editorial Control Law) in 1935, the German AP GmbH (LLC) followed its German counterparts in the process of Gleichschaltung (forcible coordination). Until the United States entered the war in December 1941, AP supplied the Nazi press with American pictures. This service proved to be of particular relevance for propaganda. AP was also allowed to continue its photographic reporting in the Reich. AP pictures taken under the aegis of the Propaganda Ministry, the Wehrmacht and the SS were ubiquitous in the Nazi press. Moreover, the New York headquarters supplied the North American press with these same pictures, where they were published either as news photos or as propaganda images.
In the aftermath of World War II, the political and geographical isolation of the Western parts of the former German capital also cut economic hinterland ties and caused an exodus of industrial companies. In consequence, West Berlin soon became dependent on West German transfer payments to balance the city’s budget. At the same time, a system of tax preferences was created to foster private investment and employment in the isolated city. The complex of subsidies was maintained and even expanded during the following decades though its negative economic effects became obvious in the second half of the 1960s. The article focuses the conceptual significance of subsidies in industrial policy as well as their factual impact on Berlin’s economic development from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, i.e. in a period of massive structural change. It comes to the conclusion that the persistence of subsidization should be explained primarily by its symbolic political value and by a lack of alternatives.
Die Holocaust-Forschung hat sich in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten internationalisiert, zugleich aber auch immer stärker ausdifferenziert und spezialisiert. Dabei entstanden regelrechte Sub-Disziplinen, etwa die »Täterforschung«, und viele Forschungsergebnisse sind – auch bedingt durch mangelnde Sprachkenntnisse – selbst für Spezialisten kaum noch zu überschauen. Mit diesem Band legen wir nun eine Einführung in die verschiedenen Forschungsansätze vor und diskutieren zugleich die Frage, in welche größeren historischen Zusammenhänge der Holocaust eingeordnet werden kann bzw. muss. Dabei geht es um Kernfragen künftiger Forschung ebenso wie um grundsätzliche Probleme, die durch die Internationalisierung und Ausdifferenzierung der Forschung entstanden sind.
Ob Unterhaltungssendungen, Spielfilme, aufbereitete Filmberichte in Nachrichtensendungen oder die Berichterstattung über internationale Sportereignisse, die über die Bildschirme flimmerten - ihre Produktion, Beschaffung, Auswahl und Sendung war vom politischen Koordinatensystem des Kalten Krieges beeinflusst. Die nationalen Femsehanstalten und internationalen Televisions-Systeme wetteiferten um wachsende Zuschauerzahlen und dienten als kulturelles Bindemittel im Kampf der Ideologien und Wertsysteme. „In a number of cases, this factor of geographical proximity has been used to beam programme directly across the borders for political purposes. The best-known example of this is in Germany where the East and East Germans conduct an elaborate, expensive form of electronic war-fare aimed at attracting each other's television audiences.“
Trotz und wegen der Blockbildung wuchsen somit spezifische Formen von Beziehungen zwischen den ost- und westeuropäischen Verbundsystemen von Femsehorganisationen, zwischen dem DDR-Femsehen und den Femsehanstalten in der Bundesrepublik, die im Folgenden aus der Sicht des DDR-Femsehens, damals als „Deutscher Fernsehfunk“ (DFF) bezeichnet, näher betrachtet werden sollen.