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Fest steht auch: Unterforscht ist die internationale Flüchtlingspolitik mitnichten. Auffällig ist aber, dass die Bedeutung des Protokolls und seiner Entstehungsgeschichte eher konstatiert als wirklich nachgewiesen wird. Die 1950er und 1970er Jahre sind Stiefkinder der Flüchtlingsforschung. Dabei fand die Globalisierung der internationalen Flüchtlingshilfe gerade in diesen beiden Dekaden statt. Ihre bis heute gültigen Grundzüge formten sich erst in diesem Zeitraum aus.
Es ist daher verkürzt, sich auf die Flüchtlingskonvention zu fokussieren und spätere Entwicklungen zu vernachlässigen: Diesem Verständnis nach leiteten nach dem Holocaust menschenrechtliche und universelle Motive die Schaffung der heutigen Strukturen. Es lohnt sich, dieses Bild zu korrigieren und die Komplexität des Entwicklungsprozesses näher zu beleuchten. Bis in die 1940er Jahre behandelte die internationale Gemeinschaft die Flüchtlingsfrage als eine Art Ausnahmezustand, als transitorisches Phänomen, überwiegend in Europa, und nicht als dauerhaftes globales Problem. Die Entwicklungen, an deren Ende eine dem Anspruch nach universelle Flüchtlingspolitik stand und die legalistisch im New York Protocol 1967 kulminierte, waren weitaus vielschichtiger.
It would be easy to presume that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights had always been a symbol of opposition and dissent in the German Democratic Republic. Passed by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, the UDHR contained a number of provisions that contradicted the political and social order of the GDR as run by the Socialist Unity Party (SED). It demanded an independent judiciary, prohibited arbitrary arrest and invasion of privacy, and guaranteed the right to leave one’s own country. In East Germany, where the judiciary was firmly an ideological organ, the Stasi regularly conducted mass surveillance and arbitrary detention and those seeking to leave the country illegally were shot at the border, this would seem to be a document seen to be inherently hostile to SED rule. Even the social rights contained in the UDHR, in particular the right to strike, were contrary to the legal realities of East Germany where citizens could not demand rights from the state that would obstruct the will of the party.
Yet over the course of East Germany’s existence, the Universal Declaration was more likely to be invoked by the SED than by its domestic opponents. The SED came to view the Universal Declaration and the UN human rights system as a whole as an ally to the Socialist Bloc and the contents of the UDHR reflected in the achievements of socialism within the borders of the GDR. For decades this was not challenged by East Germans on a mass scale, until very suddenly in the late 1980s, human rights and the UDHR became symbols of the democratic opposition. This article will trace the trajectory of the UDHR in East German public discourse from its passage in 1948 and the reaction by the SED in the Soviet Occupied Zone, through the commemorations of the UDHR on its many anniversaries before the ultimate collapse of SED in 1989.
This year marks a number of anniversaries of significant events of Czechoslovak history, starting with the declaration of independent Czechoslovakia in 1918; the Munich Agreement of 1938, which sumitted Czechoslovakia’s border areas to Hitler’s Germany; the communist takeover of 1948; and finally, the Prague Spring and subsequent Soviet-led invasion of 1968. Dubbed the “year of eights” [osmičkový rok] by the Czech media, historical reflections on the part of witnesses, historians, journalists and pundits alike are rife in the press, on the radio and on television. Yet as historian Pavel Kolář writes, when it comes to the events of 1968, “the anniversary has so far not brought any distinctive impulse” and sees this as a confirmation that “with each round anniversary, the significance of ’68 as one of the focal points of Czech memory is declining”.[1] What then remains of the eventful year of 1968 in Czech memory, fifty years on? This article will briefly examine the media response, which acts as a significant vehicle of memory, to both the reformist efforts of the Prague Spring and their suppression by Warsaw Pact tanks in the Czech Republic.