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Soziale Ungleichheit hat viele Gesichter und stellt sich in verschiedenen Gesellschaftsformationen jeweils unterschiedlich dar.1 China ist ein besonders interessanter Fall, weil dort eine Transformation von der Plan- zur Marktwirtschaft unter der Ägide der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) abläuft. Sozialistisches Erbe und kapitalistische Gegenwart gehen also eine ungewöhnliche Verbindung ein. Vor diesem Hintergrund soll der vorliegende Beitrag zeigen, dass die heutigen sozialen Ungleichheiten in China nicht allein das Produkt der Hinwendung zum Kapitalismus sind. Gemäß der Humankapitaltheorie müsste in einer marktbasierten Gesellschaft die individuelle Bildung den größten Beitrag zur Erklärung bestehender Einkommensungleichheit liefern. In der Praxis sind aber auch in kapitalistischen Gesellschaften die Startvoraussetzungen der Einzelnen nicht gleich: Sie hängen stark von der sozioökonomischen Stellung der Eltern ab, sprich von deren ökonomischem und kulturellem Kapital. Über die Weitergabe des Status von einer Generation zur nächsten bilden sich typischerweise soziale Schichten heraus, die je nach Gesellschaft mehr oder weniger Durchlässigkeit aufweisen. In China kommt noch ein dritter Faktor hinzu: Die im Staatssozialismus angelegten sozialen Differenzierungen bilden die Basis für heutige soziale Ungleichgewichte. „Politisches Kapital“ spielt nach wie vor eine wichtige Rolle – Verbindungen zur Herrschaftselite und die Stellung im offiziellen politischen Diskurs besitzen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Schichtungsergebnisse.
What is striking about recent research on residential care is not only its national bias and its tendency to neglect regional variations in ‘texture’, but also its preoccupation with contemporary issues and its lack of historical context. The notion of contingency, that is, the idea that things might have evolved differently, often seems to be missing. Moreover, most of the literature appears to be one-dimensional, downplaying the diversity, complexity and ambiguity of real developments. It often lacks an awareness of the power of precedents in shaping society’s attitudes to residential care and the practical responses to this problem. This is particularly important because, as this article tries to demonstrate, the present situation of residential care reflects the cumulative impact of traditions and cultural norms, of past decisions and commitments.
Guerrilla Mothers and Distant Doubles: West German Feminists Look at China and Vietnam, 1968–1982
(2015)
Communist China and Vietnam looked like the future to many West German feminists in the years after 1968. This article reconstructs a lost history of influence, identification and emulation, tracing some of the ways that Chinese and Vietnamese communism inspired and attracted West German feminists from the late 1960s to the early 1980s. Beginning in a spirit of socialist universalism, West German feminists drew on reports of the experience of East Asian women who they felt lived in the ›liberated zones‹ of post-revolutionary society. Like the French radicals who declared that ›Vietnam is in our factories‹, West German feminists created a global framework for their activism. Looking east, they borrowed or adopted models of consciousness-raising and direct action from China and Vietnam. This article tracks the arc of exchange, from the enthusiasm of the late 1960s and 1970s to the West German feminist disenchantment with both East Asian communism and the global South by the early 1980s.
Modeled after the Soviet propaganda magazine SSSR na stroike (›USSR in Construction‹, published 1930–1941, 1949), the Japanese overseas propaganda photo magazine FRONT (1942–1945) provided visual propaganda for the so-called ›Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere‹, a concept that was proclaimed in 1940 and served to disguise Japan’s quest for hegemony in Asia. Employing the aesthetics of Russian Constructivism and Socialist Realism of SSSR na stroike, FRONT created a visual aesthetic that could be termed Japanese Co-Prosperity Realism. Its dynamic and modernistic design was a transculturally inspired practice by Japanese photographers, graphic designers, journalists and producers of visual media, some of whom had been left-wing intellectuals or had lived and worked in the Soviet Union. In a comparative perspective, this paper carves out the political, cultural and gendered semantics of the (in)visibility of power, political religion and ethnic diversity that such aesthetics entailed. It explores some of the shifting backgrounds against which photographic techniques were enacted, from their avant-garde beginnings to their application in authoritarian regimes.
Since the 1950s, cycling policy in China has gone through three phases: from active encouragement (1955–1994) and systematic discouragement (1994–2008) to neglect and ambivalence (since the 2010s). Parallel to the expansion of automobility, the country has been unique in its development of innovations in electric-powered two-wheelers and a vibrant e-cycling practice since the 1980s. Electric bikes have given over 300 million low-status commuters and peddlers access to jobs and housing, even though planners have dismissed them as a problematic ›floating population‹ and remnants of the past. Given China’s current urban sustainable mobility challenges and ambition to become the world’s first ›Ecological Civilization‹ (2013), China’s bicycle industry, e-vehicle manufacturers, and the e-commerce sector may offer an alternative to the US-based ›car civilization‹ if ecological (e-cycles) and social (low-status workers) sustainability are brought into one analytical frame.