21. Jahrhundert
Fotografien haben für die historische Forschung zunehmend an Bedeutung gewonnen. Dienten sie vormals zumeist der Textillustration, werden sie inzwischen als eigenständige historische Quellen ernstgenommen. Die einschlägigen Publikationen, die sich entweder theoretisch mit der Visual History auseinandersetzen oder aber an konkreten Beispielen sich bildhafter Quellen annehmen, sind kaum mehr zu überblicken. Eine Gemeinsamkeit ist dabei: Nicht mehr nur der Bildinhalt spielt für die Geschichtswissenschaft eine Rolle; gefragt wird auch nach dem Entstehungskontext, der Überlieferung und der Rezeption der Bilder. Damit gerät zugleich die bisher übliche Aufbewahrungspraxis der Fotografien im Archiv in den Fokus: Die meist thematische Ordnung der Materialien lässt häufig keine Rückschlüsse auf diese neuen Fragen zu.
Milton Friedman hung up the phone in disgruntlement. The most influential economist of the postwar era had just called three different banks, one in Chicago and then two in New York, in order to initiate a financial transaction. He wanted to sell short $300,000 in pound sterling. Short selling is a technique for speculating on falling prices. Initially, speculators can only speculate on rising prices: they buy something and hope that it gains value, so that they can sell it at a profit. If the price for this asset goes down instead, the speculator incurs a loss when he resells it. So in order to profit from falling prices, speculators need to sell first and buy later – which is indeed possible if what is sold now is in fact only to be delivered a few weeks later. If the speculator is right and prices fall in the interim, he can buy cheap just before delivery is due and thus profit from having already sold what, at the time, he had not yet owned.
The newly emerging historical scholarship on the era ›after the boom‹, on the marketization of societies in the wake of the neoliberal political reforms, deregulation, and privatization starting in the 1970s, has emphasized this threshold as an epochal break that was driven by large-scale structural shifts in the global economy, in social relations, and in cultural identities. This new accentuation of the economic and social transformation has, for good reason, eclipsed older historical traditions that focused on events, discourses, specific interests, and individual actors. The marketization of social relations is thus often considered to be the result of processes beyond the reach and scope of purposeful actors that promoted specific societal changes. While this historical focus is quite right in denying independent causal status to specific agents and the self-aggrandizement of vain leaders and their intellectual entourage, it tends to obscure the historical genesis of ideas and concepts that later became critical components of political leadership, and the specific constellations of interests, knowledge and actors that did prefigure and originally promote the marketization of economic and political institutions.
Marketization is a broad term with a wide range of meanings. It encompasses measures of deregulation and privatization as well as the perceived increase of an ›economic‹ logic in social relationships. For historical purposes, the term should not be narrowly defined, and nor should the concept of marketization be used in an ahistorical manner detached from contemporary usage. However, there are two questions which the historical analysis of marketization needs to address. First, what is the conceptual understanding of the market mechanism to which the term marketization is linked? Second, what is the relationship between marketization and economic theory?
Theory matters. Most historians would probably agree with this postulate, in the sense that theories from disciplines such as sociology, economics or psychology can sharpen historical analyses of any topic (though many of them may prefer quite pragmatic, common-sense approaches in their own empirical studies). But when it comes to a historical understanding of a phenomenon like marketization, theory does remain an analytical resource – and at the same time turns into a multifaceted object of research. The way we think about markets is highly affected by theorists, and not only by their ideas but also by their effectiveness in making them influential over specific periods of time.
Der Ruf des Marktes ist lädiert. Die internationalen Finanzkrisen der letzten Jahre haben Ängste vor einem offenbar politisch unbeherrschbaren, globalisierten Hochgeschwindigkeits-Kapitalismus geschürt; zugleich verweist das seit geraumer Zeit gewachsene Unbehagen an einer anhaltenden »Ökonomisierung« von Arbeitsbeziehungen, sozialen Sicherungs- oder Bildungssystemen auf die Schattenseiten eines hochflexiblen Informations- und Konsumgüterangebots, auf das allerdings kaum jemand verzichten möchte. Wie plausibel solche Zeitdiagnosen auch immer erscheinen mögen, sie dürften immerhin das gewachsene Interesse einer Zeitgeschichtsschreibung, die sich wieder stärker der »Problemgeschichte« oder den »Anfängen der Gegenwart« widmet, an jenen ökonomischen Faktoren miterklären, die in der kulturhistorischen Hochkonjunktur der 1990er-Jahre in den Hintergrund gerückt waren.